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11.14

Butane is the longest chain.

Propane is principle chain and substituents are numbered accordingly.

Hexane is the longest chain. There are three -OH substituents and 2 methyl groups.

-OH of phenol is numbered a 1.

Propane is the principle chain and the alkoxy group is ethyl group.

the longest chain is pentane and substituents are numbered accordingly.

In such cases, cyclo groups are named first, followed by conventional naming methods.

The cyclo group is named first, followed by conventional naming methods.

Cyclo group is named first. Pentane having a double bond is named then with the suffix -OL added to the end.

The longest chain is butane when looked for minimum numbering case.

11.13

2,2,4-Trimethylpentan-3-ol

The naming of the compound usually starts with numbering the carbons in the chain. The lower set of locants are chosen for this purpose, while in this case numbering under this condition is done from the left side. Once the carbons are mentioned, the position of -OH group is numbered and -ol is added as the suffix.

2. 5-Ethylheptane-2,4-diol

Here the longest chain is the straight chain. For such situations, numbering should be such that the functional groups should be denoted by the smallest number. Ethyl group is named at the beginning as it's a side chain.

3. Butane-2,3-diol

In this system, glycols are called as Diols and their class name is Alkane diols. The two-hydroxyl group position is indicated by Arabic numerals. Firstly, the carbon chain is named, the -OH positions are numbered and suffixed with -diol (depends on the number of -OH groups.

4. Propane-1,2,3-triol

Initially carbon chain is named, -OH groups are numbered (can be done from any side as it's a symmetrical compound) and suffixed with triol.

5. 2-Methylphenol

In the IUPAC system, the position of the substituent w.r.t –OH group is indicated by an Arabic numeral, with the carbon carrying the OH group being numbered 1. So, methyl is numbered at the minimum position and phenol is added. The common name is o-cresol (ortho-cresol).

6. 4-Methylphenol

Methyl group is numbered 4 w.r.t to -OH position. The compound is symmetrical. The compound is known by its common name p-cresol (para cresol).

7. 2,5-Dimethylphenol

The position of the substituent w.r.t –OH group is indicated by an Arabic numeral, with the carbon carrying the OH group being numbered 1. The lowest number chain is further chosen. The positions of the methyl group is 2 and 5.

8. 1-Methoxy-2-methylpropane 

the longest carbon chain attached to oxygen is chosen. It is called the principal chain and the other carbon chain is named with -oxy (Alkoxy) suffix at the end. Now the position of alkoxy group is 1

w.r.t the principal chain (propane) and the methyl group

Is 2. Further alphabetically methoxy comes before methyl, therefore named as such.

9. Ethoxybenzene

The principal chain is benzene, so the short chain is named as ethoxy and suffixed with benzene

10. 1-Phenoxyheptane

Principal chain is heptane group having 7 carbon groups. Phenol group is called as substituent alkoxy group and is named.

11. 2-Ethoxybutane

The longest chain here is butane and the ethyl group is attached to the 2^nd carbon.

Single bond contains only one sigma bond and double bond contains one sigma and one pi bond.

1. In this structure, nine single bonds and three double bonds are present. So, there are 12σ and 3π bonds present.
2. In this structure, eighteen single bonds are present. So, there are only 18σ bonds present.
3. In this structure, four single bonds are present. So, there are only 4σ bonds present.
4. In this structure, four single bonds and two double bonds are present. So, there are 6σ and 2π bonds present.
5. In this structure, five single bonds and one double bond are present. So, there are 6σ and 1π bonds present.
6. In this structure, seven single bonds and one double bond are present. So, there are 8σ and 1π bonds present.

When N –propyl methyl ether reacts with HBr, it forms propanol and bromomethane, n- propyl methyl ether will cleave at O . and H⁺ will attack at O, and Br^- will attack CH ⁺

2. When Ethoxybenzene Reacts with HBr, it forms Phenol and bromoethane, Ethoxybenzene cleaves at H⁺ will attack at O, and Br^- will attack 

3. When nitrating mixture reacts with ethoxy benzene introduction of nitro group is occurred at para position as it will give the stable product without

4. As HI is a strong nucleophile it will protonate the oxygen, to form a good leaving And I^- will attack at C (CH₃)₃⁺ to give tert- butyl iodide and ethanol.

4.24. Hybridisation: It is defined as the process of intermixing of atomic orbitals of slightly different energies to give rise to new hybridized orbitals having equivalent energy and identical shapes.
Shapes of Orbitals:

sp hybridisation: When one s-and one p-orbital intermix then it is called sp-hybridisation. For example, in BeF2, Be atom undergoes sp-hybridisation. It has linear shape. Bond angle is 180°.

sp² hybridisation: One s-and two p-orbitals get hybridised to form three equivalent hybrid orbitals. The three hybrid orbitals directed towards three corners of an equilateral triangle. It is, therefore, known as trigonal hybridisation.

sp³ hybridisation: One s-and three p-orbitals get hybridised to form four equivalent hybrid orbitals. These orbitals are directed towards the four corners of a regular tetrahedron.